Alexander the Great

Philip saw to it that his only son had the best education. Alexander and his compatriots studied for three years under Aristotle, who was hired because he was the most renowned philosopher of his day. Alexander also received the very finest education in warfare and politics—his daddy taught him.

Alexander was a bundle of contradictions and extremes. He was both mystical and practical, a dreamer and a pragmatist. He was capable of planning grand strategies, yet paid attention to the details of supply and logistics while on the march. He paid careful attention to his image and it is very difficult for us to separate fact from propaganda.

His soldiers adored him, as did most who met him. He was handsome, courageous, intelligent. He was tireless in the field, able to out-work most everyone around him. Yet, he was also a dreamer, given to fits and moods. He had visions. His mother told him that he was not the son of Philip but the son of Zeus. In short, he was everything a legend should be.

But, of course, Alexander did not conquer Asia by himself.

Philip left his son a mountain of gold, all of Greece, and a magnificent army. Of the three, the latter was the most crucial.

The Phalanx
The Macedonian phalanx was Philip's creation, extended by Alexander. Whereas the Greeks still fought in their traditional three battle lines, the phalanx was a flexible unit well drilled and able to take on a variety of formations.

It was usually 16 men on a side, 256 men in each unit, always and exclusively Macedonian. They were armed with the sarissa, a long spear but at 13 feet actually shorter than the hasta used by Greek hoplites, which was over 16 feet long. The real strength of the phalanx was its many formations and maneuvers. While the square was the usual formation, it could form a line or wedge or other shapes. The soldiers were trained to respond to flag and trumpet signals. No army in the Western world in the 4th century was its equal.

Other Elements
But that wasn't all. The traditional strength of Macedonia was its heavy cavalry, and heavily-armed horsemen continued to be vital. In addition, there were Macedonian light horse and heavy cavalry from other cities. Beyond these were the Cretan archers - among his fiercest warriors - and javelin throwers, slingers, and other infantry units, all fighting according to the style traditional to each city. And, of course, the excellent navies supplied by Athens, Corinth and other cities.

Beyond these were the support elements, which likewise Alexander brought to a condition much superior to any other army at the time. Most important was his adoption of a siege train, well organized and supported by engineers. It included 100 foot battering rams and 150 foot high siege towers with bridges (this was the first known use of bridges on siege towers). Legend says Alexander himself invented the torsion catapult; certain it is that he used it. Like other great commanders, he was a master of logistics and communications.

On the battlefield, Alexander typically placed the Macedonian heavy infantry (the phalanx) in the center. Parmenio commanded the left, Alexander the right, leading the Macedonian cavalry. He preferred an oblique order of attack, with Alexander's wing leading the way. Parmenio's job was the most thankless--he was to engage the enemy and hold. But Alexander's battles are marked by his ability to mix all the elements of his army and bring to bear just what was needed at just the right time.

Qualities of Command
In addition to all these factors, Alexander exhibited tremendous personal bravery. He was always at the front and always in the thick of battle. Generals in pre-modern times usually led their men rather than commanding from behind. This, of course, placed the great man in great jeopardy.

Alexander was wounded in neck and head at the Granicus River, in the thigh at Issus, the shoulder at Gaza. He suffered a broken leg in Turkestan, was wounded on three occasions in Afghanistan, and, most seriously, had his lung pierced by an arrow in India. He more than once was the first man over the wall at the storming of a city.

Alexander never lost a battle. As the victories accumulated, his men came to believe that he was invincible. So did his enemies.

Like other great generals, he knew and loved his men. He remembered their names and deeds, calling them by name when he would speak to them before a battle, citing their exploits. His veterans he sent home for a rest to Greece, allowing them to visit their families. He was liberal in his gifts and honors.

All of these factors created an army that simply could not be stopped. Its accomplishments so far eclipsed anything that had ever been done, Alexander and his Macedonians entered into legend.

Alexander set out in spring 334, after having had to re-settle affairs in Greece and Macedonia after his father's murder. One of the many puzzles about Alexander is whether he intended from the beginning to conquer the world. We know that he brought with him artists, geographers, historians, botanists, geologists and other scientists -- something quite beyond the normal scope of a military expedition.

Ever the politician, his first act was to visit Troy -- the site of the great victory of the Greeks over Asia. The visit was also due to personal interest, for he greatly admired Homer and the heroes of the Trojan War. It was a brilliant propaganda gesture, and he followed it with astute diplomacy. As he marched down the Ionian coast, he liberated the Greek cities, restoring democracy, rather than conquering them. By posing as a liberator and savior, he won allies and gained many recruits here.

The Persian satrap was unable to stop him at the first major battle at the Granicus River. This battle was in some ways the most important of Alexander's career, though others are more famous. It was important because it was his first real battle in Asia; it was really rather a mad gamble, one that his generals argued he should not have made. But the circumstances of the battle reveals not only his courage and confidence, but also his fine political sense and his enormous good fortune.

After his victory, Alexander rolled through Asia Minor, detouring to Gordium to meet up with his general Parmenio. Gordium was a town in Galatia, the ancient capital of the Phrygians. In the town was a wagon tied to a post. It was a very ordinary post and a very ordinary wagon with one exception: the yoke was fastened to the pole with a complex of knots so thoroughly tangled that it was impossible to unravel. The legend was the anyone who could loose the knot would be the conqueror of Asia.

Alexander the Great naturally had to try his hand at this fabled knot, since he was in town anyway. He had announced his intention of conquering Asia, and to leave Gordium without testing the knot was unthinkable. So, he and some of his men, and a large crowd of locals, all made their way to the acropolis and the wagon.

The Gordian Knot was an especially difficult one in that there were no loose ends showing. Alexander tried for a while but was copmletely stumped. His attendants were concerned, for failure here would make poor propaganda.

At last, Alexander cried out "What difference does it make how I loose it?" He pulled out his sword and cut the knot through. Thus did Alexander reveal that he was the one prophesied. It was a lovely play on words, for the Greek word was luein, which can mean "untie" but can also mean "sunder" or "resolve."

From that story of Alexander came a phrase that is still used occasionally. To "cut the Gordian knot" means to slice through a problem that appears hopelessly complex by some simply, bold stroke.

But the true test would come when he faced not a provincial but an imperial Persian army.

The Persian Empire's military machine was powerful and ponderous. When Darius finally came to meet him, Alexander was already in southern Turkey. The situation for the Greeks was serious. They were still in the mountains, trying to find a safe passage to the sea. Darius managed to get in between and Alexander had to fight his way through.

30,000 Greeks faced 100,000 Persians across a small river called the Pinarus, near the town of Issus. Fighting across a river is always difficult, for the attacker has to wade through the water and climb the opposite bank before ever engaging the defender.

Parmenio led the Greek left and had a hard fight of it. Alexander personally led the right, which held the Macedonian cavalry. The battle was still very much at issue when Alexander led a charge straight at Darius himself.

Seeing Alexander cutting his way through the Persians, obviously making for the king himself, Darius panicked and fled. Once the king was seen abandoning the field -- he was easy to spot in his golden chariot -- the Persian army collapsed.

Issus marked the beginning of the end of Persian power in the Mediterranean. After Issus, Alexander knew he could bring Darius down; he began to dream of replacing him as King of Kings.